Journal of Clinical Epidemiology
Volume 55, Issue 2 , Pages 164-175 , February 2002

Assessing the performance of a new depression screener for primary care (PC-SAD©)

  • William H. Rogers

      Affiliations

    • The Health Institute, Division of Clinical Care Research, Department of Medicine, New England Medical Center (NEMC), 750 Washington Street, Box 345, Boston, MA 02111, USA
  • ,
  • Ira B. Wilson

      Affiliations

    • The Health Institute, Division of Clinical Care Research, Department of Medicine, New England Medical Center (NEMC), 750 Washington Street, Box 345, Boston, MA 02111, USA
    • Tufts University School of Medicine, Boston, MA, USA
  • ,
  • Kathleen M. Bungay

      Affiliations

    • The Health Institute, Division of Clinical Care Research, Department of Medicine, New England Medical Center (NEMC), 750 Washington Street, Box 345, Boston, MA 02111, USA
    • Tufts University School of Medicine, Boston, MA, USA
  • ,
  • Diane J. Cynn

      Affiliations

    • The Health Institute, Division of Clinical Care Research, Department of Medicine, New England Medical Center (NEMC), 750 Washington Street, Box 345, Boston, MA 02111, USA
  • ,
  • David A. Adler

      Affiliations

    • The Health Institute, Division of Clinical Care Research, Department of Medicine, New England Medical Center (NEMC), 750 Washington Street, Box 345, Boston, MA 02111, USA
    • Tufts University School of Medicine, Boston, MA, USA
    • Department of Psychiatry, NEMC, Boston, MA, USA
    • Corresponding Author InformationCorresponding author. Tel.: 617-626-8755; fax: 617-636-8351. E-mail address:(D.A. Adler)

Received 28 November 2000 ,Revised 27 July 2001 ,Accepted 30 July 2001.

References 

  1. Katon W, Schulberg HC. Epidemiology of depression in primary care. Gen Hosp Psychiatry. 1992;14:237–247
  2. Kessler RC, McGonagle KA, Zhao S, Nelson CB, Hughes M, Eshleman S, et al.  Lifetime and 12-month prevalence of DSM-III-R psychiatric disorders in the United States. Results from the National Comorbidity Survey. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 1994;51(1):8–19
  3. Greenberg PE, Stiglin LE, Finkelstein SN, Berndt ER. The economic burden of depression in 1990. J Clin Psychiatry. 1993;54(11):405–418
  4. Schulberg HC, Block MR, Madonia MJ, Scott CP, Rodriguez E, Imber SD, et al.  Treating major depression in primary care practice (eight-month clinical outcomes). Arch Gen Psychiatry. 1996;53:913–919
  5. Simon GE. Can depression be managed appropriately in primary care?. J Clin Psychiatry. 1998;59(Suppl 2):3–8
  6. Wells KB, Sturm R, Sherbourne CD, Meredith LS. Caring for depression. Cambridge: Harvard University Press; 1996;
  7. Frank R, McGuire T, Normand S, Goldman H. The value of mental health care at the system level (the case of treating depression). Health Aff (Millwood). 1999;18(5):71–88
  8. Agency for Health Care Policy and Research . Depression in primary care (detection and diagnosis). Rockville, MD: U.S. Dept. of Health and Human Services; 1993;
  9. Crismon ML, Trivedi M, Pigott TA, Rush AJ, Hirschfeld RM, Kahn DA, et al. The Texas Medication Algorithm Project: report of the Texas Consensus Conference Panel on Medication Treatment of Major Depressive Disorder. J Clin Psychiatry 1999;60(3):142–56.
  10. Katon W, Von Korff M, Lin E, Walker E, Simon GE, Bush T, et al.  Collaborative management to achieve treatment guidelines (impact on depression in primary care). JAMA. 1995;273(13):1026–1031
  11. Katon W, Robinson P, Von KM, Lin E, Bush T, Ludman E, et al.  A multifaceted intervention to improve treatment of depression in primary care. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 1996;53(10):924–932
  12. Katon W, Von Korff M, Lin E, Simon G, Walker E, Unutzer J, et al.  Stepped collaborative care for primary care patients with persistent symptoms of depression (a randomized trial). Arch Gen Psychiatry. 1999;56(12):1109–1115
  13. Katzelnick DJ, Simon GE, Pearson SD, Manning WG, Helstad CP, Henk HJ, et al.  Randomized trial of a depression management program in high utilizers of medical care. Arch Fam Med. 2000;9(4):345–351
  14. Simon GE, VonKorff M, Rutter C, Wagner E. Randomised trial of monitoring, feedback, and management of care by telephone to improve treatment of depression in primary care. BMJ. 2000;320(7234):550–554
  15. Wells KB, Sherbourne C, Schoenbaum M, Duan N, et al.  Impact of disseminating quality improvement programs for depression in managed primary care (a randomized controlled trial). JAMA. 2000;283(2):212–220
  16. Lin EH, Simon GE, Katon WJ, Russo JE, Von Korff M, Bush TM, et al.  Can enhanced acute-phase treatment of depression improve long-term outcomes? A report of randomized trials in primary care. Am J Psychiatry. 1999;156(4):643–645
  17. Simon GE, Goldberg D, Tiemens BG, Ustun TB. Outcomes of recognized and unrecognized depression in an international primary care study. Gen Hosp Psychiatry. 1999;21(2):97–105
  18. Schulberg HC, Burns B. Mental disorders in primary care (epidemiologic, diagnostic, and treatment research directions). Gen Hosp Psychiatry. 1988;10:79–87
  19. Schulberg HC, Katon W, Simon GE, Rush J. Treating major depression in primary care practice. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 1998;55:1121–1127
  20. Klinkman M, Coyne JC, Gallo S, Schwink T. Case finding instruments to be used to improve physician detection of depression in primary care. Arch Fam Med. 1997;6:567–573
  21. Goldman L, Wise T, Brody DS. Handbook of psychiatry in primary care. Chicago: American Medical Association; 1998;
  22. Miranda J, Hohmann A, Attkisson CC, Larson D. Mental disorders in primary care. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass; 1994;
  23. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. Mental Health: A report of the surgeon general. Rockville, MD: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration, Center for Mental Health Services, NIH, NIMH, 1999.
  24. Eisenberg L. Sounding board (treating depression and anxiety in primary care: closing the gap between knowledge and practice). N Engl J Med. 1992;326(16):1080–1083
  25. Manderscheid RW, Rae D, Narrow W, et al.  Congruence of service utilization estimates from the Epidemiologic Catchment Area project and other sources. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 1993;50:108–114
  26. Schwenk T. Screening for depression in primary care (a disease in search of a test). J Gen Intern Med. 1996;11:437–439
  27. U.S. Preventative Services Task Force . Guide to clinical preventive services. 2nd ed. Baltimore, MD: Williams & Wilkins; 1996;
  28. Valenstein M, Vijan S, Zeber JE, Boehm K, Buttar A. The cost-utility of screening for depression in primary care. Ann Intern Med. 2001;134(5):345–360
  29. Mulrow CD, Williams JW, Gerety MB, Ramirez G, Montiel OM, Kerber C. Case-finding instruments for depression in primary care settings. Ann Intern Med. 1995;122(12):913–921
  30. Schade CP. A ten-year review of the validity and clinical utility of depression screening. Psychiatr Serv. 1998;49(1):55–61
  31. Berwick DM, Murphy JM, Goldman PA, Ware JEJ, Barsky AJ, Weinstein MC. Performance of a five-item mental health screening test. Med Care. 1991;29(2):169–176
  32. Eaton W, Neufeld K, Chen L, Cai G. A comparison of self-report and clinical diagnostic interviews for depression. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 2000;57:217–222
  33. Kavan MG, Pace TM, Poterotto JG, Barone EJ. Screening for depression (use of patient questionnaires). AFP. 1990;41(3):897–904
  34. Spitzer RL, Kroenke K, Williams JB, et al.  Validation and utility of a self-report version of PRIME-MD (the PHQ primary care study). JAMA. 1999;282(18):1737–1744
  35. Ware JEJ, Sherbourne CD. The MOS 36-item short-form health survey (SF-36). I. Conceptual framework and item selection. Med Care. 1992;30(6):473–483
  36. Burnam MA, Wells KB, Leake B, Landsverk J. Development of a brief screening instrument for detecting depressive disorders. Med Care. 1988;26(8):775–789
  37. Coulehan JL, Schulberg HC, Block MR. The efficiency of depression questionnaires for case finding in primary medical care. J Gen Intern Med. 1989;4:541–547
  38. Hamilton M. Development of a rating scale for primary depressive illness. Br J Soc Clin Psychol. 1967;6(278):296
  39. Spitzer RL, Williams JB, Kroenke K, et al.  Utility of a new procedure for diagnosing mental disorders in primary care (PRIME-MD 1000 study). JAMA. 1994;272:1745–1756
  40. Rost K, Burnam MA, Smith GR. Development of screeners for depressive disorders and substance disorder history. Med Care. 1993;31(3):189–200
  41. American Psychiatric Association . Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders. 4th ed. Washington, DC: APPI; 1994;
  42. Zimmerman M, Coryell W, Wilson S, Corenthal C. Evaluation of symptoms of major depressive disorder. J Nerv Mental Dis. 1986;174(3):150–153
  43. Zimmerman M, Mattia J. The reliability and validity of a screening questionnaire for 13 DSM-IV Axis I disorders (the psychiatric diagnostic screening questionnaire) in psychiatric outpatients. J Clin Psychiatry. 1999;60(10):677–683
  44. Klinkman MS, Coyne JC, Gallo S, Schwenk TL. False positives, false negatives, and the validity of the diagnosis of major depression in primary care. Arch Fam Med. 1998;7(5):451–461
  45. Whooley MA, Avins AL, Miranda J, Browner WS. Case-finding instruments for depression. Two questions are as good as many. J Gen Intern Med. 1997;12(7):439–445
  46. Zung WW. A self-rating depression scale. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 1965;12:63–70
  47. Beck AT, Steer RA, Garbin MG. Psychometric properties of the beck depression inventory (twenty-five years of evaluation). Clin Psychol Rev. 1988;8:77–100
  48. Beck AT, Steer RA. Manual for the Beck depression inventory. San Antonio TX: Psychological Association; 1987;
  49. Zich JM, Attkisson CC, Greenfield TK. Screening for depression in primary care clinics (the CES-D and the BDI). Int J Psychiatr Med. 1990;20(3):259–277
  50. Radloff L. The CES-D scale. Appl Psychol Measure. 1977;1:385–401
  51. Vernon S, Roberts R. Further observations on the problems of measuring non-specific psychological distress and other dimensions of psychopathology. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 1981;38:1239–1247
  52. Montgomery SA, Asberg M. A new depression scale designed to be sensitive to change. Br J Psychiatry. 1979;134:382–389
  53. Spitzer RL, Williams JBW, Kroenke K, Linzer M, deGruy FV III, Hahn S, et al. PRIME-MD: validation and clinical utility of a new procedure for diagnosing mental disorders in primary care. Biometr Res Dept 1993;1–36.
  54. Weissman MM, Broadhead E, Olfson M, Sheehan DV, Hoven C, Conolly P, et al.  A diagnostic aid for detecting (DSM-IV) mental disorders in primary care. Gen Hosp Psychiatry. 1998;20:1–11
  55. Kobak KA. Development and validation of the Hamilton Depression Inventory (a self-report version of the Hamilton Depression Rating Scale). Psychol Assess. 1995;7:472–483
  56. Spitzer RL, Kroenke K, Kinzer M, Hahn SR, Williams JBW, DeGruy FV, et al.  Health-related quality of life in primary care patients with mental disorders (results from the PRIME-MD 1000 study). JAMA. 1995;274(19):1511–1517
  57. Zimmerman M, Coryell W. The validity of a self-report questionnaire for diagnosing major depressive disorder. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 1988;45:738–740
  58. Zimmerman M, Farber NJ, Hartung J, Lush DT, Kuzma MA. Screening for psychiatric disorders in medical patients (a feasibility and patient acceptance study). Med Care. 1994;32(6):603–608
  59. Rost K. Depression guidelines: outcomes and costs of care: NIMH Grant No. MH54444. 94.
  60. Ware J, Snow K, Kosinski M, Gandek B. SF-36 Health survey (manual and interpretation guide). Boston MA: The Health Institute New England Medical Center; 1994;
  61. Ware J, Kosinski M, Keller S. SF-12 (how to score the SF-12 physical & mental health summary scales). 2nd ed. Boston, MA: The Health Institute New England Medical Center; 1995;
  62. Bennett B, McNemar M. Tests of hypotheses concerning matched samples. J R Stat Soc. 1967;B29:468–474
  63. Marquis K. Hospital stay response error estimates for the health insurance study's baseline survey. In: van der Gaag J, Perlman M, editors. Health, economics, and health economics. Amsterdam, The Netherlands: 1981.
  64. Chandra-Sekhar C. On a method of estimating birth and death rates and the extent of registration. J Am Stat Assoc. 1949;49:101
  65. Rogers W, Newhouse J. Measuring unfiled claims in the health insurance experiment. In:  Burstein L,  Freeman H,  Rossi P editor. Collecting evaluation data (problems and solutions). Beverly Hills: Sage; 1985;
  66. De Lima M, Hotoph M, Wessely S. The efficacy of drug treatments for dysthymia (a systematic review and meta-analysis). Psychol Med. 1999;29:1273–1289
  67. Zimmerman M, Lish JD, Farber NJ, Hartung J, Lush D, Kuzma MA, et al.  Screening for depression in medical patients. Is the focus too narrow?. Gen Hosp Psychiatry. 1994;16(6):388–396
  68. de Lima MS, Hotoph M, Wessely S. The efficacy of drug treatments for dysthymia (a systematic review and meta-analysis). Psychol Med. 1999;29(6):1273–1289
  69. Keller MB. Dysthymia in clinical practice (course, outcome and impact on the community). Acta Psychiatr Scand Suppl. 1994;383:24–34
  70. Ariyo A, Haan M, Tangen C, Rutledge J, et al.  Depressive symptoms and risks of coronary heart disease and mortality in elderly Americans. Circulation. 2000;102(15):1773–1779
  71. Dorwick C, Buchan I. Twelve month outcome of depression in general practice (does detection of disclosure make a difference). Br Med J. 1995;31:1274–1276
  72. Magruder-Habib K, Zung WW, Feussner JR, Alling WC, Saunders WB, Stevens HA. Management of general medical patients with symptoms of depression. Gen Hosp Psychiatry. 1989;11(3):201–207
  73. Miranda J, Hohmann A, Attkisson CC, Larson D. Mental disorders in primary care. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass; 1994;
  74. Simon GE. Can depression be managed appropriately in primary care?. J Clin Psychiatry. 1998;59(Suppl 2):3–8
  75. Wagner EH, Austin BT, Von Korff M. Organizing care for patients with chronic illness. Milbank Q. 1996;74(4):511–544
  76. Coyne JC, Klinkman MS, Gallo SM, Schwenk TL. Short-term outcomes of detected and undetected depressed primary care patients and depressed psychiatric patients. Gen Hosp Psychiatry. 1997;19(5):333–343
  77. Tiemens BG, VonKorff M, Lin EH. Diagnosis of depression by primary care physicians versus a structured diagnostic interview (understanding discordance). Gen Hosp Psychiatry. 1999;21(2):87–96

PII: S0895-4356(01)00430-9

Journal of Clinical Epidemiology
Volume 55, Issue 2 , Pages 164-175 , February 2002